Dr. Shirin Haque-Copilah
Physics Dept, Univ. of the West Indies
Contribution of Muslim scholars to the development of Astronomy
The first verse that was ever revealed to Prophet Muhammad (UWBP) implores man towards the acquisition of knowledge:
“Read in the name of thy Sustainer, who has created – created man out of a germ cell! Read – for thy Sustainer is the Most Bountiful One. Who has taught (man) the use of the pen – Taught man what he did not know!” (96: 1-5)
A quick browsing through the holy Qur’an shows many Surahs beginning with astronomical references: “Consider those (stars) that rise only to set” (79:1)
“Consider the heavens and that which comes in the night” (86:1)
“Consider the sun and its radiant brightness and the moon as it reflects the sun!” (91:1)” …… “Consider the sky and its wondrous make” (91:5)
“Consider the night as it veils (the earth) in darkness” (92:1)
It is our moral obligation to study Astronomy! Given the exposition in the previous section, it would seem natural that Astronomy should get its impetus first and foremost from Muslim Scholars. And so it was in the early years of Islam. Sadly, this trend has suffered a serious decline in the last few centuries. It is really interesting to note that Muslims were in fact the first to differentiate and separate the science of Astronomy from the pseudo science of astrology. The development of Astronomy suffered a great decline and the last of the great Muslim astronomers was Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1228 CE). Let us venture back in time and see the richness of the pursuit of knowledge particularly in Astronomy in the early days of Islam. Contributions to Astronomy by Muslim scholars will naturally include contributions to Mathematics and Physics that are indispensable tools for the study of Astronomy. If the tradition of seeking knowledge as Islam emphasizes had continued, Astronomy would have continued to flourish among Muslim scholars and no doubt have been centuries ahead of our time as we have seen from the expositions in the previous sections as highlighted in the holy Qur’an.
Greek works were translated by Muslim scholars in Arabic and they also added encyclopaedias of their own. When Europe later re-awoke, they translated the Arabic works and the Arabic translations of the Greek works. Star names were not translated but transliterated so that to date many many stars names are Arabic in origin. A look through any catalogue of stars, and one is immediately struck by the numerous names that appear to be Arabic in origin such as Aldabaran and Deneb. In an astronomical catalogue of almost 250 stars, over 140 of them had names that were Arabic in origin. Many new stars were discovered by Muslims. The book on stars of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was in fact translated into Spanish by Alfonso X el Sabio. The Muslims carried out many observations that were contained in astronomical tables called Zij. One of the most keen observers was al-Battani. The zij of al-Ma'mun observed in Baghdad, the Hakimite zij of Cairo, the Toledan Tables of al-Zarqali and his associates, the el-Khanid zij of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi observed in Maraghah, and the zij of Ulugh-Beg from Samarqand are among the most famous Islamic astronomical tables. These tables had significant influence upon Western Astronomy up to the time of Astronomer Tycho Brahe.
In Astronomy the Muslims integrated the astronomical traditions of the Indians, Persians, the ancient Near East and especially the Greeks from the 8th century onward. The Almagest of Ptolemy, the name of which is Arabic in origin, was thoroughly studied and its planetary theory criticized by several astronomers of both the eastern and western lands of Islam. A major critique of the theory was developed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and his students especially Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, in the 13th century.
The first astronomical observatory as a scientific institution was the observatory of Maraghah in Persia established by al-Tusi. Later European observatories indirectly followed this model. The most famous astronomical instrument, the astrolabe was developed by Muslims to carry out observation. There existed even mechanical astrolabes perfected by Ibn Samh that can be considered as the predecessor of the mechanical clock.
The Muslims also applied their astronomical knowledge to questions of time-keeping and the calendar in making almanacs, this word too being Arabic in origin. The most exact solar calendar existing to this day is the Jalali calendar which was developed under the direction of 'Umar Khayyam in the 12th century. This is still in use in Persia and Afghanistan.
In the field of Mathematics, Muslims began by integrating Greek and Indian mathematics. The first great Muslim mathematician, al-Khwarazmi, who lived in the 9th century, wrote a treatise on arithmetic that brought the Arabic numerals to the West. He is also the author of the first book on algebra. The term algebra itself comes from the first part of the name of the book of al-Khwarazmi, entitled Kirah al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah. Abu Kamil al-Shuja' discussed algebraic equations with five unknowns. The science was further developed by such figures as al-Karaji until it reached its peak with Khayyam who classified by kind and class algebraic equations up to the third degree. The brothers Banu Musa who lived in the 9th century may be said to be the first outstanding Muslims in the field of geometry while their contemporary Thabit ibn Qurrah helped lay foundations of integral calculus. Muslims scholars also developed trigonometry that was established as a distinct branch of mathematics by al-Biruni. Calculus, trigonometry and geometry are the cornerstones of solving problems in Astronomy.
Other Muslim mathematicians such as Khayyam and al-Tusi examined Euclidean geometry that is the geometry of flat surfaces. The Muslim mathematicians, especially al-Battani, Abu'l-Wafa', Ibn Yunus and Ibn al-Haytham, also developed spherical Astronomy. Euclidean and spherical geometry are particularly useful in studying the overall geometry of the Universe in the study of cosmology.
The works of Ibn Sina, Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdadi, Ibn Bajjah and others led to the development of the idea of impetus and momentum, principles in Physics that are applied to motion of bodies in Astronomy. Another area that is important in Astronomy is optics. It is very relevant in the development of tools for observation like telescopes that employ lenses or mirrors. Ibn al-Haytham (the Latin Alhazen) who lived in the 11th century was one of the greatest student of optics between Ptolemy and Witelo. Ibn al-Haytham's main work on optics, the Kitab al-manazir, was also well known in the West as Thesaurus opticus. Ibn al-Haytham studied the property of lenses, discovered the camera obscura, explained correctly the process of vision, studied the structure of the eye, and explained for the first time why the sun and the moon appear larger on the horizon (very simply put, it is because the thicker layer of atmosphere at the horizon acts as magnifying lens compared to overhead). His interest in optics was carried out two centuries later by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi and Kamal al-Din al-Farisi. It was Qutb al-Din who gave the first correct explanation of the formation of the rainbow.
Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Battani , one of the top twenty astronomers in the history of civilization comments
“ [Astronomy] has a well earned place among disciplines for its tremendous share in helping man calculate years and months, provide accurate time, mark seasons, observe increase and decrease in duration of days and nights, watch locations and eclipses of the sun and the moon, witness the movements of planets in their faring in alternating places and signs. Much more may be added by it through study and scrutiny that invariably leads to further proof and knowledge of the greatness, wisdom, and power of the Creator (SWT)”
The holy Qur’an is full of gems of expositions in Astronomy - a sprinkling of which have been highlighted in this article. That in itself should be an inspiration to Muslim scholars to continue in the present day the pursuit of knowledge in the Sciences. Like in the days of yore, we should strive to develop a culture that is scientifically rich in the understanding of natural phenomena by “men of understanding”.
In the past few years, there has been a concerted effort by many well-informed Muslims of the need to use Astronomy for the establishment of the beginning of the months. In this connection it is useful to note the following verse from the holy Qur’an:
“The sun and moon (are subjected) to calculations.” (55:05)
The informed Muslim community are now taking these matters very seriously and
there is an international effort via CFCO (Committee For Crescent Observation), an active society since 1978, and the more recent ICOP (Islamic Crescent Observation Project), both of which include members from all over the world whose job it is to observe the crescent young moon not only for the months indicating the beginning Ramadan or its end, but all year long. This issue has been a bone of contention time and time again among Muslims. In this connection, it would be useful to highlight the words of noted fiqh scholar Dr. Taha Jabir al-Alwani from his book Ijtihad1 with respect to the sighting of the moon for the start and end of the holy month of Ramadan. Dr. al-Alwani in pointing out the necessity and significance of Ijtihad in relation to Time-Space factor uses the sighting of the moon as an example, and I quote him:
Ijtihad (1993) Published by International Institute of Islamic Thought,USA. p. 27
”…It could never have been the prophet’s intention to make life so difficult when he established that rule. He was, at that time, addressing illiterate people, and the best they could do to establish the beginning of the month was to see the moon with the naked eye. They had no other means and Allah (SWT) did not wish to make matters difficult or impossible for them. But when there exists more accurate instruments to determine the same fact, it would be totally unacceptable, and indeed backward looking, if insistence is on using out-dated and inadequate methods. The message of Islam is intended for all people in all ages; it was never restricted to the first hijri century Arabs of Makkah. Therefore, to stick to the literal meaning irrespective of the time factor is a benighted approach which is conducive neither to enlightment nor to progress.”
One can be guided by astronomical calculations to help one to know when and where to search for the crescent moon. This has brought to light that many countries have hitherto been in error in establishing the beginning of the new month, Saudi Arabia included. Some have accepted they have been in error and are now revising their position on that count. It is important that we do not follow blindly but we seek to understand and convince ourselves of the correctness of methods employed. The modern era of internet access and electronic communication seeks to educate and unite us as Muslims like we never could before.
There are now several different softwares available for calculating the dates and times of new moons, prayer times and qibla direction. The study of Astronomy is not something to be afraid of - it enlightens us and guides to a deeper understanding and appreciation of our religion and recognition of the omnipotence of our Creator. There is nothing wrong if in searching for the crescent moon we know when and where to look for it. Over and over the Qur’an emphasizes the aspect “for men of understanding”. We need to listen to that, surely there is great importance and relevance for it to be repeated so many times
The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) has said “ Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave”. Islam is about a lifetime of learning. A lifetime of learning means we can never know or understand everything. It is a dynamic process and we must continue to strive at all times.
“Verily, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the succession of night and day, there are indeed messages for all who are endowed with insight, (3:190)
(and) who remember God when they stand, and when they sit, and when they lie down to sleep, and (thus) reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth: “ O our Sustainer! Thou hast not created (aught of) this without meaning and purpose. Limitless art Thou in Thy glory! Keep us safe, then from suffering through fire!” (3:191)
“Praise the name of your Lord, the Most High, Who creates and proportions well, Who determines and guides” (87:1-3)
Tuesday, June 16, 2009
